Each stage is concerned with becoming competent in a certain area of life. If the stage is managed well, the individual will feel a sense of mastery, which he referred to as ego strength or ego quality. But if the stage is handled poorly, the individual will experience a sense of inadequacy. Erikson believes that the challenges of stages that were not successfully dealt with may reappear later in life in the form of problems.

Enumerated below are the eight stages, with special attention to stages five and six:

Psychosocial Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)

The first stage is the most fundamental stage in life and focuses on the infant’s basic needs. Since an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust depends on the parents or guardians. The child’s understanding of the world is provided by the parents and their interaction with the child. If the child is exposed to an environment of warmth and dependable affection, the child’s perspective of the world will be one of trust. Once the child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. On the Other hand, parents who are emotionally unavailable, inconsistent or rejecting confer the feeling of mistrust.

Psychosocial Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

This stage is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control as they begin to assert their independence. If children at this stage are supported and encouraged in their increased independence, they tend to become more confident and secure in their ability to survive in the world. The parents’ patience and encouragement helps instil autonomy in the child. But children who are criticized and restricted by their parents tend to develop a sense of shame and doubt in their own abilities.

Psychosocial Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years)

Children start to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other forms of social relation.  Children want to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. They begin to plan and initiate activities with others. Once given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Conversely, if adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt.

Psychosocial Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 12 years)

Children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities through social interactions. They are more focused to bring a productive situation to completion instead of previous whims and wishes of play. They tend to initiate projects, bring them to completion, and feel good about what they’ve achieved. At this stage, teachers play a significant role in the child’s development. In general, children who are encouraged and commended by their teachers and parents develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills and abilities to achieve goals. Those who receive little or no encouragement will feel inferior and start to doubt their ability to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents, 13 to 19 years)

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is of utmost importance. It is the time when children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self. They explore possibilities and start to establish their own identity based upon the results of their explorations. The adolescent is deeply concerned with how they appear to others. They start to look at the future in terms of relationships, career, families, housing, etc. During the later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity.

As children make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents evaluate the roles they will play as adults. At first, they are likely to experience some role confusion or mixed ideas and feelings about how they will blend into society. As such, they are apt to experiment with different types of behavior and activities. In the end, Erikson proposed that most adolescents will achieve a sense of identity as to who they are and where their lives are headed.

During the entire process, those who get enough encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration are the ones who will emerge with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. In contrast, those who remain uncertain and doubtful of their beliefs and desires tend to be confused about themselves and the future.

Psychosocial Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults, 20 to 34 years)

At the beginning of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, and it persists at the foundation of the stage. Young adults still yearn to blend their identities with their peers in their effort to fit in. Erikson believes that people are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. People are discouraged and fearful of rejections because it is painful and the ego cannot bear such pain. Erikson also proposes that intimacy has a counterpart: distantiation or the willingness to isolate and if needed, to eliminate the forces and people whose essence are perceived as threat, and whose domain seems to impinge on the extent of one’s intimate relations.

Erikson posits that the moment people establish their identities, they are ready to engage in long-term commitment. They are able to form intimate relationships and readily make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships entail. If people fail to form intimate relationships, then a sense of isolation may result. Moreover, those who avoid intimacy can lead to isolation and sometimes depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 35 to 65 years)

Generativity pertains to the concern of guiding the next generation. People at this stage are focused on giving back to society by being productive at work and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. When a person achieves such objectives, a sense of generativity results. In contrast, those who are unable or unwilling to help society move forward feel unproductive and develops a feeling of stagnation.

Psychosocial Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Seniors, 65 years onwards)

As people grow older and become senior citizens, productivity slows down and the focus shifts on reflecting back on life. It is during this stage that people contemplate about accomplishments and are able to develop ego integrity if there is a perception that they had led a successful life. There is a feeling of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy and productive life. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience disappointment and regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Student voice is the term used to embody and characterize the specific behavior and distinct perspectives of young people across various learning institutions that focus primarily on education.  It empowers students and endows them with the ability to influence learning to integrate contexts policies, principles and programs.

Student voice represents the individual as well as the collective outlook and attitude of young people within the framework of education. It has been regarded in schools as both a figurative practice and as a practical and utilitarian concern.

Student voice work is based on the following principles:

• Young people have distinct viewpoints when it comes to the concept of education which includes schooling, teaching and learning.
• Their perspectives command not only the attention but also the understanding and responses of adults.
• They ought to be given active participation in shaping their education.

A number of typologies characterize the different practices that fall within the context of student voice. One determines and establishes the multiple roles for students in all respects of the education system, such as education planning, research, teaching, analysis, decision-making and advocacy.

Administrative Approaches

The presence of student voice is viewed as crucial to the educational process dating back at least to the time of John Dewey, or even earlier. Dewey is renowned for his publications concerning education and his ideas have been influential to educational reform. It was in 1916 when he started writing extensively about the need of engaging student perspectives and experience in the curriculum of schools. His support for student voice was epitomized by this statement:

“The essence of the demand for freedom is the need of conditions which will enable an individual to make his own special contribution to a group interest, and to partake of its activities in such ways that social guidance shall be a matter of his own mental attitude, and not a mere authoritative dictation of his acts.”

Student voice is currently seeing a resurgence of importance as it has been increasingly identified by a growing body of literature as a significant factor throughout the educational process. Specific areas where advocates are actively pushing for the acknowledgment of student voice include curriculum design and teaching methods, Scholastic leadership and educational reform activities.

Curricular Approaches

There are certain types of activities that can particularly incorporate student voice; such activities include school planning, teaching, research, decision-making, learning and instructional analysis, educational advocacy, and student advisories for school authorities.

Service Learning

The main objective of service learning is to actively engage student voice, which normally aims to relate learning objectives with community service opportunities. Student voice is likewise present in student leadership programs, practical education activities, and other forms of student-centered learning activities.

Students as Education Decision-Makers

The main concept behind engaging students as educational decision-makers is to teach young people to be responsible for their education by methodically engaging them in making the right choices about the education system – from what affects individual students, to what affects the entire student body, and what affects the school system as a whole.

The essential duties of school authorities include school building design, teacher hiring, selecting the appropriate curriculum, calendar year planning, among others. Such duties are currently regarded as avenues for student voice. Today, students are taking part in boards of education at all levels. There are education agencies that accept students as staff in programs where they are allowed to make decisions regarding school assessment, grant making, and other areas. Students also latch on decision-making by constituting and implementing codes of conduct and in personal decision-making, such as deciding whether to attend school, what course to pursue and which classes to choose.

Outcomes

Student voice is now widely regarded as a key to a successful school reform, as researchers, educational institutions, and academic support organizations across the globe increasingly press for the involvement of students in the reform process after recognizing student voice as a crucial element of student engagement.

Criticisms

Critical educators including Henry Giroux, Paulo Freire and Gloria Jean Watkins have expressed concern about the singular idea of a student voice. An expert even wrote about the apparent over-simplification, stating that: “It is not enough to simply listen to student voice. Educators have an ethical imperative to do something with students, and that is why meaningful student involvement is vital to school improvement.”

Student voice is the term used to embody and characterize the specific behavior and distinct perspectives of young people across various learning institutions that focus primarily on education.  It empowers students and endows them with the ability to influence learning to integrate contexts policies, principles and programs.

Student voice represents the individual as well as the collective outlook and attitude of young people within the framework of education. It has been regarded in schools as both a figurative practice and as a practical and utilitarian concern.

Student voice work is based on the following principles:

• Young people have distinct viewpoints when it comes to the concept of education which includes schooling, teaching and learning.
• Their perspectives command not only the attention but also the understanding and responses of adults.
• They ought to be given active participation in shaping their education.

A number of typologies characterize the different practices that fall within the context of student voice. One determines and establishes the multiple roles for students in all respects of the education system, such as education planning, research, teaching, analysis, decision-making and advocacy.

Administrative Approaches

The presence of student voice is viewed as crucial to the educational process dating back at least to the time of John Dewey, or even earlier. Dewey is renowned for his publications concerning education and his ideas have been influential to educational reform. It was in 1916 when he started writing extensively about the need of engaging student perspectives and experience in the curriculum of schools. His support for student voice was epitomized by this statement:

“The essence of the demand for freedom is the need of conditions which will enable an individual to make his own special contribution to a group interest, and to partake of its activities in such ways that social guidance shall be a matter of his own mental attitude, and not a mere authoritative dictation of his acts.”

Student voice is currently seeing a resurgence of importance as it has been increasingly identified by a growing body of literature as a significant factor throughout the educational process. Specific areas where advocates are actively pushing for the acknowledgment of student voice include curriculum design and teaching methods, Scholastic leadership and educational reform activities.

Curricular Approaches

There are certain types of activities that can particularly incorporate student voice; such activities include school planning, teaching, research, decision-making, learning and instructional analysis, educational advocacy, and student advisories for school authorities.

Service Learning

The main objective of service learning is to actively engage student voice, which normally aims to relate learning objectives with community service opportunities. Student voice is likewise present in student leadership programs, practical education activities, and other forms of student-centered learning activities.

Students as Education Decision-Makers

The main concept behind engaging students as educational decision-makers is to teach young people to be responsible for their education by methodically engaging them in making the right choices about the education system – from what affects individual students, to what affects the entire student body, and what affects the school system as a whole.

The essential duties of school authorities include school building design, teacher hiring, selecting the appropriate curriculum, calendar year planning, among others. Such duties are currently regarded as avenues for student voice. Today, students are taking part in boards of education at all levels. There are education agencies that accept students as staff in programs where they are allowed to make decisions regarding school assessment, grant making, and other areas. Students also latch on decision-making by constituting and implementing codes of conduct and in personal decision-making, such as deciding whether to attend school, what course to pursue and which classes to choose.

Outcomes

Student voice is now widely regarded as a key to a successful school reform, as researchers, educational institutions, and academic support organizations across the globe increasingly press for the involvement of students in the reform process after recognizing student voice as a crucial element of student engagement.

Criticisms

Critical educators including Henry Giroux, Paulo Freire and Gloria Jean Watkins have expressed concern about the singular idea of a student voice. An expert even wrote about the apparent over-simplification, stating that: “It is not enough to simply listen to student voice. Educators have an ethical imperative to do something with students, and that is why meaningful student involvement is vital to school improvement.”

The timeline of children’s rights in the United Kingdom involves a spate of events dating back to the 15^th century. The various events that transpired to date are regarded as both political and grassroots in nature.

The British government upholds its stance that the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) cannot be put into effect legally and is therefore ‘aspirational‘ only, despite the fact that a 2003 European Commission of Human Rights (a.k.a. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms) ruling states that, “The human rights of children and the standards to which all governments must aspire in realising these rights for all children are set out in the Convention on the Rights of the Child.” Roughly eighteen years following its enactment, the four Children’s Commissioners in the United Kingdom (including those for the three devolved administrations) have concurred in pushing for the adoption of the Convention into local legislation, thereby making children’s rights well recognized and legally binding.

Those lobbying against children’s rights often raise the spectre of rights without responsibilities. The children’s rights movement contends otherwise, asserting that children have rights which adults, states and the government have a responsibility to uphold. In general, a 2008 report enounced that there had been no improvement in children’s rights in the United Kingdom since 2002. With a warning that there is a “widely held fear of children and young people” in the country, the report states: “The incessant portrayal of children as thugs and yobs” not only reinforces the fears of the public but also influences policy and legislation.”

The UNCRC defines children, for the purposes of the Convention, as individuals under the age 18, unless local legislation provides otherwise. In such essence, the timeline includes as children all those below the UK age of majority, which was set at 21 until 1971, when it was lowered to 18. Even though the Crown Dependencies of the Isle of Man, Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey are not constitutionally part of the United Kingdom, the British government is liable for their foreign affairs and for that reason, it is equally responsible for their international treaty obligations, so the timeline includes some references to matters in those dependencies.

For a comprehensive listing of the significant eventualities in the United Kingdom as they relate to children’s rights, from pre-16^th century to November of 2008, click on this link.

Single Parenting of Teens

Juvenile delinquency refers to juvenile behavior characterized by antisocial conduct that is beyond parental control and is therefore subject to legal action. However, such behavior or violation of the law is not punishable by death or life imprisonment.

Extensive research and study have been conducted to determine the possible causes as well as risk factors that eventually lead to cases of juvenile delinquency. A risk factor can be defined as scientifically proven reasons that have a strong causal relationship to a certain problem. An in-depth understanding of various factors that result in juvenile delinquency can help parents and society as a whole to come up with solutions to deal with the problem. Some risk factors have been categorized and are listed below:

Individual/Personal Factors — Individual psychological or behavioral risk factors that may increase the likelihood of committing criminal offenses include intelligence, aggression, impulsiveness, anxiety and empathy. Aggressive behavior has also been noted among children with certain neurological and cognitive abnormalities. These may manifest as restlessness, low IQ and verbal ability, poor scholastic performance, constricted problem-solving skills and reasoning abilities, neurophysiological disorders and aberrant functioning of neurotransmitter systems and steroid hormones.

Children with low intelligence are likely to have poor performance in school. This situation may further increase the chances of offending since low educational aspirations and low educational attainment are all risk factors for juvenile delinquency. Moreover, children who perform poorly in school are the ones who are more likely to truant, which is likewise related to offending.

Environmental Factors – The immediate environment where a child grows has a significant role in influencing the child’s behavior patterns. Some environmental factors that have been generally associated with delinquent behavior include poverty or limited economic opportunities, excessive exposure to violence and criminal acts, and high unemployment rate.

Community/Social Factors – Researchers claim that the community has a substantial role to play in child development, including a smooth transition from adolescence to adulthood. A strong social infrastructure help children and teenagers to develop the essential social skills, boost self-confidence and enhance decision-making capabilities. In contrast, a disorganized society is a potential risk factor for juvenile delinquency. Some community level risk factors include lack of quality educational and recreational opportunities, availability and accessibility of illicit drugs and weapons.

Family Factors — It is crucial to establish good communication between parents and children, adequate parental supervision and guidance in order to ensure healthy development of a child. However, there is sufficient evidence which suggests that family environment has direct influence on a child’s state of mind, resulting in juvenile delinquency. These include incidences like domestic violence, child neglect, child abuse, parental conflict or separation, criminal parents or siblings, and ineffective disciplinary practices of parents.

Anorexia in Teens

Adolescent medicine is a medical subspecialty that deals primarily with the care and treatment of patients who are in the adolescent stage of development. This period typically starts between the ages of nine to 11 for females and 11 to 14 for males.  Considered as a primary care subspecialty, adolescent medicine integrates various iatrical aspects including dermatology, endocrinology, gynecology, nutrition, psychology and sports medicine. It is likewise an integral component of internal medicine, family practice, pediatrics, and youth health.

Medical practitioners who delve in the practice of adolescent medicine often address issues and disorders with a high prevalence during adolescence. These include the following:

§ Precocious puberty

§ Birth control

§ Substance abuse

§ Acne vulgaris

§ Unintended pregnancy

§ STDs or sexually transmitted diseases

§ Eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia

§ Menstrual disorders like amenorrhea, dysfunctional uterine bleeding and dysmenorrhea

§ Mental illnesses, particularly anxiety disorders, personality disorders, bipolar disorder, major depression, suicidal ideation and certain types of schizophrenia

Healthcare providers who deal with adolescents normally take a holistic approach as they try to gather information relevant to the patient’s well-being. The approach closely resembles the biophysical model which is epitomized in the HEADSS assessment. It is a screening acronym for adolescent patients and stands for Home, Education, Activities, Drugs, Sex, and Suicidality.

Aside from a comprehensive medical history, adolescents ought to undergo a thorough physical examination as well as a mental health status exam at least once a year. The physical exam should include sexually transmitted infections (STI) testing, a neurological assessment, and a reproductive system exam. In addition, developmental progression should be documented on an annual basis, and endocrinological tests should be considered especially among patients who fail to develop in a normal manner.

Young women must be properly educated on how to examine their breast for signs of breast cancer, and young men should know how to examine their penis and testicles for STDs and cancer. Laboratory tests, including a CBC to screen for anemia, and a fasting lipid profile or a spot cholesterol check to screen for hyperlipidemia should be undertaken at least once during the adolescent period.

For those who are sexually active, especially patients who are living in areas of high prevalence, screening tests for STDs should be done, including rapid plasma reagin (RPR) or venereal disease research laboratory (VDRL) test for syphilis, screening for HIV, chlamydia and gonorrhea. Females who are sexually active must have a pelvic exam, including a Pap smear to screen for cervical cancer.

In terms of immunizations, the following are deemed imperative: a meningitis vaccination, a tetanus vaccination or booster shot, the Gardasil vaccine against HPV particularly for sexually active young women, and an annual influenza inoculation.

Teen Addictions

With the drastic changes in modern society, teenagers are becoming sexually active at earlier ages. What young people ought to know about sex should start with their parents. They must be the first source of sex education for their teens. A lot of parents are confused, if not afraid, about what they should impart to their teens when it comes to the topic of sex. They are also often worried that sexual information could trigger or increase their teen’s interest in experimentation. However, several studies have revealed that sex education do not encourage or heighten sexual activity. In fact, well informed teenagers make better decisions about their sexuality when they have the notion that no subjects are regarded as taboo at home.

Sex is a topic that should not be taken lightly. Teenagers are prone to suffer lots of consequences if they are unaware of the essential aspects that they should know about sex. Some parents tend to wait for their teens to approach them and ask about the matter. But if it does not happen, they tend to be anxious when their teens never ask questions that are sexual in nature. Parents must realize that teenagers pick up cues and have perhaps realized that topics related to sex make them jittery and uncomfortable. As a result, teens just try to steer away from the topic and this is often the root of the problem. Who’s better to explain the morality and repercussions of sex to teenagers than their parents? They are gravely mistaken if they believe that they no longer have the responsibility to teach their teens about sex and sexuality simply because human sexuality can be learned in school. Parents must realize that in most cases, schools only teach about the anatomy and physiology of human sexuality. It usually ends there that’s why morality and issues related to sex remain proscribed. This is precisely the reason why parents should take an active role and teach their teens about their moral obligations when it comes to sex, including their moral obligations toward their partner.

This is of particular importance if teenagers are already sexually active. Parents must take on the responsibility of opening their eyes about the possible repercussions of their actions. Teenagers must have a clear awareness and understanding about the implications of their sexual behavior. There are really a lot of issues to impart to teens about sex to help them protect themselves from easily falling prey to its hazards. Parents must be a part of their teen’s lives and make them feel good about their sexuality from the onset. This way, it would be easier for teens to take time out and sit down with their parents and talk about the matter in a manner that is stress-free and without hesitations or restrictions. Altogether, sex education is definitely a difficult topic to discuss with teenagers but parents must realize that it is just another crucial responsibility that they can’t escape from.

With the financial crisis in the world and without it we all have a need to save money, either to survive until the next month, or to save money for our kids to go to college. There are numerous reasons for saving money, and here is some insight on how to save money in at least 66 ways. But keep in mind that there are much more ways to save money and you can use these for starters and for a guideline in finding more ways to save money.

You can save money on various things from utility bills to simple home budgeting. Mostly you can save money on transportation, insurance and banking services. I will list a whole lot of ways to save money, most effective for each of the following groups: Transportation, Insurance, Banking/Credit, Housing, Utilities etc…. For everything that is missed out here you can find out on www.usa.gov.

As for transportation the most effective way to save money when buying a car consist of several steps. First step is finding low cost vehicle that has all the necessities needed but has low gasoline consumption, easy to find parts and low maintenance cost. Once you have done that the next step is to find an appropriate insurance. The right insurance has to have everything you need, but it has to be affordable. So there are multiple ways to save on car insurance and they can go from clean driving record to the line of work and place of residence. But the most important thing is finding the best quotes, and you can compare quotes using online search engines like Google or Yahoo.

The third step is banking and credit options and they are many, from regular savings accounts to mutual funds and credit card responsibility. Well you can deposit an amount of money in a savings account and wait for the interest rate to go up and you can do all sorts of other things, but the most important thing is responsible debt keeping. We are all credit card happy in this day of age, but not all of us are credit card responsible. What you need to do in order to avoid your interest piling up is paying your rate at least a week before the statement due date. Or at least pay as much as you can each month in order to lower the interest rate for the bank.

As for utilities and housing you need to keep in mind like with everything else that it is very important to understand what you are paying for. For example if you want your house redecorated you first want to find the appropriate firm to do the redecorating and once you do you want to make sure they do exactly what you need before paying. Never pay up front, as that may leave you with empty pockets and a lousy work that you paid for.

There are many other ways to save money and you can find most of them on educational sites like government websites and Wikipedia. You need to know that there is always another way to save money without denying yourself anything necessary.

Extracurricular Activities
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There are many ways to be safe and to plan ahead. But in order to do that we need to educate ourselves. And we can do that in many ways. The easiest way today is using internet, as it provides us with all the answers we need.

Teen Self-Esteem

Like every other kid with certain years you get some more freedom and you get some more responsibilities. One of the responsibilities as a teenager is managing your money. And that may sound too serious for a kid and you might not see the point to it right away, but it’s a place to start, a place to grasp your responsibilities and a place to know how to handle them. Managing your money from early age may bring you a lot of benefits, and not just financial kind. It may help you become a more reliable and responsible adult.

So what you need to do is start saving some of your money. Any amount will be fine. You need to open up a savings account or you don’t but it’s a big plus. Basically what you do is take a little portion of your earning, whether that is from your birthday or from your part time job and deposit that money into a savings account. When you get some money, that would be the first thing you should do, and after that you may deal with your money accordingly to your needs. Always be sure to have a savings jar, it may sound silly, but if you every day empty your pockets for change at the end of the month you will have a nice amount of money that you can either spend or also put in your savings account.

Once you got that covered you should start budgeting. Yeah, that sounds serious, something that adults would do, but it will help you and it’s not that hard. All you need to do is figure out how much your income is every month and keep track of your expenses. So if you get $50 a week and spend $5 every day on snacks and fun that still leaves you with $15 to put into your account. And if you spend more than you get, well you might want to consider cutting down on some expenses or getting a part time job.

The rest of managing your money is just calm thinking. There is no need to rush anything, especially when you are making a purchase. If you want to buy an expensive item, you need to ask yourself do you really need that item, maybe you can find the same thing for much less. Always be careful when buying new stuff, read the labels as you don’t want to throw your money away on something useless. And always be careful not to fall a victim to scam, because there are a lot of frauds targeting teens for their money scams.

Figure out your goals for the future that may be an important motive for saving your money. Maybe you want to go to a good college and you need some money saved, or you want to buy a new car then, whatever your goal is it may help you achieve a lot if you dedicate yourself, it can certainly set standards for your money saving habit.

Dealing with Puberty